See presentation by Carl J. Dahlman of Georgetown University in National Research Council, Innovation Strategies for the 21stCentury: Report of a Symposium, Charles W. Wessner, editor, Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2007.
Government pronouncements on the importance of innovation began earlier. For example, then-President Jiang Zemin declared in the keynote address to the National Innovation Technology Conference on Aug. 23, 1999, that “the core of each country’s competitive strength in intellectual innovation, technological innovation, and high-tech industrialization.” Current President Hu Jintao has stressed the importance of innovation in numerous speeches.
UNESCO, Institute for Statistics Database, Table 25, Gross Expenditure on Research and Development in constant dollars. Growth rate from 1998 to 2008.
Ministry of Science and Technology of the People’s Republic of China, China S&T Statistics Data Book 2010, Figure 1-1.
Battelle and R&D Magazine, 2012 Global R&D Funding Forecast, December 2011
Martin Grueber and Tim Studt, “Global Perspective: Emerging Nations Gain R&D Ground,” R&D Magazine, Dec. 22, 2009.
Xinhua News Service, “China 2010 International Patent Filings up 56.2%,” China Daily, Feb. 2, 2011.
Data from Research Triangle Foundation.
State Council of China, National Medium- and Long-Term Program for Science and Technology Development, 2006–2020 (http://webcache
State Intellectual Property Office, “National Patent Development Strategy (2011–2020),” (http://graphics8
National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, National Patterns of R&D Resources: 2008 Data Update, Detailed Statistical Tables, NSF 10-314 (March 2010), Tables 1–4.
Ministry of Science and Technology of the People’s Republic of China, China S&T Statistics Data Book 2010, Figure 1–3 at http://www
As a recent National Academy report concluded “China’s S&T investment strategy is ambitious and well-financed but highly dependent on foreign inputs and investments. Many of its stated S&T and modernization goals will be unachievable without continued access to and exploitation of the global marketplace for several more decades. China plays a critical role in low- and select high-tech industry production and logistics chains, but it cannot (yet) replicate these processes domestically.” National Academy of Sciences, Natural Research Council, S&T Strategies of Six Countries: Implications for the United States, Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2010, p.23.
Gruber and Studt, ibid.
China S&T Statistics Data Book 2010, ibid., Figure 1–2.
Chunlin Zhang, Douglas Zhihua Zeng, William Peter Mako, and James Seward, Promoting Enterprise-Led Innovation in China, Washington, DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 2009 (http:
For examples of U.S. industry complaints, see John Neuffer, “China: Intellectual Property Infringement, Indigenous Innovation Policies, and Frameworks for Measuring the Effects on the U.S. Economy,” written testimony to the United States International Trade Commission Investigation No. 332-514 Hearing on behalf of the Information Technology Industry Council, June 15, 2010. (http://www
See Denis Fred Simon and Cong Cao, China’s Emerging Technological Edge: Addressing the Role of High-End Talent, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
OECD Reviews of Innovation Policy, op. cit. This lack of performance is reflected in the innovation component of the World Bank’s Knowledge Economy Index (KEI), which ranks China 63rd in the world despite its large absolute spending on R&D. The innovation component of the World Bank’s index is based on total royalty payments and receipts, patent applications granted by the U.S. PTO and scientific and technical journal articles. World Bank, Knowledge Assessment Methodology at http://go
Remarks by Deng Wenkui of the State Council Research Office at the Sept. 19, 2011 National Academies symposium “U.S.-China Policy for Science, Technology, and Innovation” in Washington, DC.
From presentation by Yang Xianyu of the Ministry of Science and Technology in National Research Council, Building the 21st Century: U.S. - China Cooperation in Science, Technology, and Innovation, Charles. W. Wessner, editor, Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2011.
Hu Jintao report to the 17th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, Oct. 14, 2007. See Xinhua, “Innovation tops Hu Jintao’s Economic Agenda,” Oct. 15, 2007 (http://news
Cong Cao, Richard P. Suttmeier, and Denis Fred Simon, “China’s 15-Year Science and Technology Plan,” Physics Today, December 2006 (http://www
National Medium- and Long-Term Program for Science and Technology Development, op. cit.
For an extensive discussion of the controversies surrounding China’s indigenous innovation policies, see James McGregor, “China’s Drive for ‘Indigenous Innovation: A Web of Industrial Policies, “U.S. Chamber of Commerce, Global Intellectual Property Center, APCO Worldwide (http://www
Micah Springut, Stephen Schlaikjer, and David Chen, “China’s Program for Science and Technology Modernization: Implications for American Competitiveness,” CENTRA Technology Inc., prepared for The U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 2011 (http://www
OECD, Main Science and Technology Indicators: Volume 2011/1, 2011, p. 18. Data comparison based on current U.S. dollars.
UNESCO.
See Carl Dahlman, World Under Pressure, op. cit.
UNESCO Science and Technology database.
See presentation by Carl Dahlman of Georgetown University in National Research Council, Innovation Policies for the 21stCentury, Charles W. Wessner, editor, Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Also see Carl Dahlman, in Building the 21st Century: U.S. - China Cooperation in Science, Technology, and Innovation, op. cit.
From presentation by Lan Xue of Tsinghua University School of Public Policy and Management at June 28, 2011, Joint Seminar on Comparative Innovation Studies at the Chinese Academy of Engineering in Beijing. This symposium was co-sponsored by the National Academy of Sciences, the Chinese Institute for Strategy Studies in Engineering and S&T.
The Four Modernizations were goals originally promoted by Zhou Enlai in the 1960s and adopted at the Third Plenum of the 11th Central Committee in December 1978.
From presentation by Thomas R. Howell in Innovation Policies for the 21stCentury, op. cit.
The initial fields covered in the 863 program were biotechnology, space, information technology, automation, energy, and new materials. Other fields, such as telecommunications and marine technology, were added in subsequent five-year plans. An explanation of the program is found on the Ministry of Science and Technology Web site at http://www
For a concise explanation of Chinese innovation policies over the past decade, see Can Huang, Celeste Amorim, Mark Spinoglio, Borges Gouveia and Augusto Medina, “Organization, Programme and Structure: An Analysis of the Chinese Innovation Policy Framework,” R&D Management 34, 4, 2004 (http://xcsc
An explanation of the Torch program is found on the Web site of the People’s Republic of China New York Consulate at http://www
See Lan Xue, “Universities in China’s National Innovation System,” prepared for the UNESCO Forum on Higher Education, Research, and Knowledge, 2006 (http://portal
The National Basic Research Program, also known as the 973 Program, was approved by the central government in June 1997 and administered by the Ministry of Science and Technology. For an explanation in English of the program, see http://www
For a good analysis of changes in the Chinese Academy of Sciences and reforms of research institutes, see Richard P. Suttmeier, Cong Cao, and Denis Fred Simon, “China’s Innovation Challenge and the Remaking of the Chinese Academy of Sciences,” Innovations, Summer 2006 (http://www
Xue, “China’s Innovation Policy in Context of National Innovation System Reform,” op. cit.
Wen Jiabao, “Speech at the National Science and Technology Conference,” Jan., 9, 2006.
Xue presentation in June 28 Beijing symposium.
The Medium to Long-Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology, op. cit.
A list of government spending announcements for megaprojects is found in Springut, Schlaikjer, and Chen, op. cit.
For an account of internal debates over drafting of the 15-year plan is in McGregor, op. cit.
The State Council announced Emerging Strategic Industries initiative was released following the Communist Party’s 2010 plenary. A Chinese version of the decree, Guo-Fa 2010 No. 32 can be accessed at http://www
People’s Daily Online, “Strategic Emerging Industries Likely to Contribute 8% of China’s GDP by 2015,” October 19, 2010 (http://english
Steven Sun and Garry Evans, “Emerging Strategic Industries: Aggressive Growth Plans,” HSBC Global Research, Oct 19, 2010). (http://www
Estimate in Springut, Schlaikjer, and Chen, op. cit.
Yang presentation, op. cit.
From presentation by Steve O’Rourke of Deutsche Bank Securities in National Research Council, The Future of Photovoltaic Manufacturing in the United States: Summary of Two Symposia, Charles W. Wessner, ed., Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2011.
Martin Crutsinger, “U.S. Challenges Chinese Wind-Power Subsidies,” Associated Press article published in Seattle Times, Dec. 22, 2010.
Matthew Dalton, “EU Finds China Gives Aid to Huawei, ZTE,” Wall Street Journal, Feb. 3, 2011.
Keith Bradsher, “7 U.S. Solar Panel Makers File Case Accusing China of Violating Trade Rules,” New York Times, Oct. 20, 2011.
Stephen Lacy, “How China Dominates Solar Power,” The Guardian, September. 12, 2011.
The Medium to Long-Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology, op. cit.
U.S. International Trade Commission, China: Intellectual Property Infringement, Indigenous Innovation Policies, and Frameworks for Measuring the Effects on the U.S. Economy, Investigation No. 332-514, USITC Publication 4199 (amended), November 2010 (http://www
McGregor, “China’s Drive for ‘Indigenous Innovation: A Web of Industrial Policies, U.S. Chamber of Commerce, Global Intellectual Property Center, APCO Worldwide (http://www
Deng Wenkui presentation, op. cit.
Xue presentation, op. cit. While it is true that, measured in terms of domestic value-added, China’s trade surplus with certain countries such as the United States is overstated, the domestic value-added of Chinese exports has been increasing over time. See Robert Koopman and Zhi Wang, “How Much of China’s Exports is Really Made in China? Estimating Domestic Content in Exports When Processing Trade is Pervasive,” presented at World Bank Trade Workshop, June 10, 2011.
Yuqing Xing and Neal Detert, “How the iPhone Widens the United States Trade Deficit with the People’s Republic of China,” ADBI Working Paper 257, Asian Development Bank Institute, December 2010 (http://www
Harold L. Sirkin, Michael Zinser, and Douglas Hohner, Made in America, Again: Why Manufacturing Will Return to the U.S., Boston Consulting Group, August 2011. This report can be accessed at http://www
From presentation by Ren Weimin of the National Development and Reform Commission in Building the 21st Century: U.S. - China Cooperation in Science, Technology, and Innovation, op. cit.
State Council of China, “National Medium- and Long-Term Program for Science and Technology Development, 2006–2020” (http://webcache
Data from presentation by Xu Jianping of the National Development and Reform at the Sept. 19, 2011, National Academies symposium “U.S.-China Policy for Science, Technology, and Innovation” in Washington, DC.
China’s Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2006–2010) also calls for producing around 15 major software enterprises with sales exceeding RMB 10 billion. For a good analysis of China’s information technology and communication strategy by Indian software-industry association Indian software-industry association NASSCOM, see “Tracing China’s IT Software and Services Industry Evolution,” whitepaper prepared by NASSCOM Research, August 2007 (http://www
Sirkin, Zinser, Hohner, op. cit.
National Research Council, S&T Strategies of Six Countries, op. cit., pg. 26.
Xu Jianping presentation, op. cit.
Presentation by Tian Zhiling of the China Iron and Steel Research Institute Group in June 28, 2011, Chinese Academy of Engineering symposium.
Data from presentation by Tian Zhiling of the China Iron and Steel Research Institute Group in June 28, 2011, Chinese Academy of Engineering symposium.
Ibid.
From Dahlman presentation, Building the 21st Century: U.S. - China Cooperation in Science, Technology, and Innovation, op. cit.
The Chinese Academy of Sciences has 12 branch offices, 117 institutes organized as legal entities, over 100 national key laboratories and a staff of over 50,000 people. http://english
From remarks by Mu Rongping of the Chinese Academy of Sciences at the June 28, 2011, symposium at the Chinese Academy of Engineering in Beijing.
Report on the Development of National Education (www
National Education Development Statistics cited by Su Jun and Joseph Zhou, “Chinese University in the National Innovation System,” presented at June 28, 2011 joint symposium at Chinese Academy of Engineering in Beijing.
Ibid.
Statistics from presentation by Lou Jing of the Ministry of Education’s Department of Science and Technology in Building the 21st Century: U.S. - China Cooperation in Science, Technology, and Innovation, op. cit.
From presentation by Wu Hequan of Tsinghua University Science Park in June 28 joint symposium.
For a critique of China’s scientific research system, see Yigong Shi and Yi Rao, “China’s Research Culture,” Science, Vol. 329, no. 5996, Sept. 3, 2010.
Yigong Shi and Yi Rao, “China’s Research Culture, Science, Vol. 329, p. 1128, Sept. 3, 2010.
Springut, Schlaikjer, and Chen, op. cit
Su and Zhou, op. cit.
From remarks by Joseph Zhou of Tsinghua University at June 28, 2011, joint symposium.
QS World University Rankings 2010/2011 (http://www
These programs are described in Springut, Schlaikjer, and Chen, op. cit.
China Statistical Yearbook on Education data cited by Su and Zhou.
Zhou presentation.
Xue, “Universities in China’s National Innovation System,” op. cit.
Data cited in Springut, Schlaikjer, and Chen, op. cit.
For a collection of articles that highlight recent cancer research in China, see Cell Research’s special issue on cancer research in China. See Cell Research published online on 16 April 2007.
See Dexter Roberts and Pete Engardio, “China’s Economy: Behind All the Hype,” BusinessWeek, Oct. 23, 2009.
U.S. company interview in Beijing (June 2011). (NB: Names and affiliations of this and other interviewees have been withheld pending permission.)
From presentation by Li Guoqing of the State Council Central Finance and Economics Office at the Sept. 19, 2011 National Academies symposium “U.S.-China Policy for Science, Technology, and Innovation” in Washington, DC.
See The Economist, “Up, Up and Huawei: China has Made Huge Strikes in Network Equipment,” Sept. 24, 2009.
Rankings cited on Huawei corporate Web site.
Huawei data from Web site.
See Huawei press release, “Huawei Receives Innovation Awards for Contribution to CDMA Development,” June 17, 2011, Huawei Web site (http://www
ZTE data.
Data supplied by ZTE.
Interview with ZTE in Shanghai.(June 2011).
“Caterpillar Expands China Research Center,” Business Daily Update (China) (January 10 2012).
“Corning Sets Up Research Center on the Mainland,” Chinadaily.com (June 29, 2011).
“Tenacent, Intel to jointly set up Research Center,” SinoCast (April 13, 2011).
Toyota already operated an R&D center in Tianjin. “Toyota rolls out wholly owned Research Center,” Chinadaily.com (November 22, 2010).
“Boeing, Tsinghua Open Research Center” Chinadaily.com (October 21, 2010).
Dawei Cheng, “China SMEs: Today’s Problem and Future’s Cooperation,” PowerPoint presentation, School of Economics, Renmin University of China. Presentation can be accessed at http://www
See Jiang Hong, “State-owned Enterprises Research Project Press Release Conference & Academic Seminar Successfully Held in Beijing,” Unirule Institute of Economics. 2011. Access at http://english
Data from Lan Xue, “China’s Innovation Policy in the Context of national Innovation System Reform,” Tsinghua University, Aug. 27, 2007 (http://www
Company interviews in Beijing and Shanghai.
US Company interview in Shanghai.(June 2011).
US Company Interview in Shanghai.(June 2011).
US Company interview in Shanghai.(June 2011).
US Company interview in Beijing (June 2011).
From presentation by Mark E. Dean of IBM Research in Building the 21st Century: U.S. - China Cooperation in Science, Technology, and Innovation, op. cit.
US Company Interview in Beijing (June 2011).
Descriptions of major research programs at Microsoft Research Asia can be found on the center’s Web site at http://research
Microsoft Research Asia Web site.
US Company Interview. in Beijing (June 2011).
For example, see presentations by James M. Forcier of A123 Systems in Building the U.S. Battery Industry for Electric-Drive Vehicles.
Keith Bradsher, “China Builds High Wall to Guard Energy Industry.” International Herald Tribune, July 13, 2009.
An extensive treatment of China’s policies to promote its renewable energy equipment sector can be found in Thomas Howell, William A. Noellert, Gregory Hume, Alan Wm. Wolff,, China’s Promotion of the Renewable Electric Power Equipment Industry: Hydro, Wind, Solar, Biomass, Dewey & LeBoeuf LLP prepared for National Foreign Trade Council, March 2010.
See presentation by Jason M. Forcier of A123 Systems in forthcoming volume National Research Council, Building the U.S. Battery Industry for Electric-Drive Vehicles: Progress, Challenges, and Opportunities, Charles W. Wessner, ed., Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
See Roger Cliff, Chad J. R. Ohlandt, and David Yang, Ready for Takeoff: China’s Advancing Aerospace Industry, RAND National Security Research Division for U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 2011.
Ministry of Information Industry, “Outline of the 11th Five-Year Plan and Medium-and-Long-Term Plan for 2020 for Science and Technology Development in the Information Industry,” Xin Bu Ke [2006] No. 309, posted on ministry website Aug. 29, 2006.
A report by the European Union Chamber of Commerce in China said that “industrial-policy interventions and restrictions on foreign investment have been on the rise” and that “European companies are increasingly concerned by the tendency for local companies to be favored over foreign-invested ones.” See European Union Chamber of Commerce in China, European Business in China Position Paper 2009/2010, executive summary (http://www
Keith Bradsher, “Hybrid in a Trade Squeeze, New York Times, Sept. 5, 2011.
The White House, “U.S.-China Joint Statement,” Paragraph 27, Office of the Press Secretary,” Jan. 19, 2011 (http://www
The White House, “Remarks by President and Obama and President Hu in a Roundtable with American and Chinese Business Leaders,” Office of the Press Secretary, Jan. 19, 2011 (http://www
Reuters, “China Eases Government Procurement Rules After U.S. Pressure,” June 29, 2011.
U.S. company interview in China.
U.S. company interview in China
U.S. company interview in China
For example, see Adam Segal, “China’s Innovation Wall: Beijing’s Push for Homegrown Technology,” Foreign Affairs, Sept. 28, 2010 (http://www
Company interviews in China.
Yang presentation, op. cit.
From presentation by Deputy Assistant Secretary of State Anna Borg in Building the 21st Century: U.S. - China Cooperation in Science, Technology, and Innovation.
C. Dan Mote, “Universities as Drivers of Growth in the United States,” in National Research Council, Building the 21stCentury : U.S. China Cooperation on Science, Technology, and Innovations, Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2011.
Caroline S. Wagner, The New Invisible College: Science for Development, Washington, DC: Brookings, 2008.
From presentation Robin L. Newmark of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in Building the 21st Century: U.S. - China Cooperation in Science, Technology, and Innovation.
From presentation by Anna Barker of the National Cancer Institute in Building the 21st Century: U.S. - China Cooperation in Science, Technology, and Innovation.
Ibid.
Data from Science (2005) 309: 65–66.
Deng Wen Kui presentation, op. cit.
Evey Y. Zhou and Bob Stembridge, “Patented in China: The Present and Future State of Innovation in China,” Thompson Reuters, 2010.
Springut, Schlaikjer, and Chen, op. cit.
See Mu Rongping, Song Hefa, and Chen Fang, “Innovative Development and Innovation Capacity-Building in China,” International Journal of Technology Management, Vol. 51, No. 2/3/4, 2010.
UNESCO, UNESCO Science Report 2010, p. 391.
For example, see Jody Lu, “Who is Making Junk Patents?”, China Daily, March 6, 2011 (http://ipr
Anil K. Gupta and Haiyan Wang, Getting China Right, San Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass, 2009.
Anil K. Gupta and Haiyan Wang, “Chinese Innovation is a Paper Tiger,” Wall Street Journal, July 28, 2011.
In her address at a conference on Chinese and U.S. innovation policies hosted by the National Academies, U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Anna Borg warned that Chinese investment barriers or domestic intellectual-property requirements “will ultimately be self-defeating.” See Anna Borg presentation in Building the 21st Century: U.S. - China Cooperation in Science, Technology, and Innovation, op. cit.
Li Guoqiang presentation, op. cit.
Carl J. Dahlman, “The Innovation Challenge: Drivers of Growth in China and India,” National Research Council, Innovation Policies for the 21st Century (Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2007) pp 45–60.
NASSCOM, “Indian IT-BPO Industry,” 2011. Data can be accessed at http://www
From presentation by T. S. R. Subramanian in National Research Council, India’s Changing Innovation system: Achievements, Challenges, and Opportunities for Cooperation, Charles W. Wessner and Sujai J. Shivakumar, editors, Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2007.
World Bank data cited in World Bank, Unleashing India’s Innovation: Toward Sustainable and Inclusive Growth, Mark A. Dutz, editor, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 2007 (http:
See National Innovation Council, Towards a More Inclusive and Innovative India, September 2010 (http://www
“India suffers from inefficiency in transforming its S&T investments into scientific knowledge (publications) as well as into commercially relevant knowledge (patents).” National Academy of Sciences, S&T Strategies of Six Countries, op. cit., p. 43.
World Bank, Unleashing India’s Innovation: Toward Sustainable and Inclusive Growth, Mark A. Dutz, editor, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 2007 (http:
GERD = gross domestic expenditures on research and development.
UNESCO data.
Data cited in World Bank, Unleashing India’s Innovation, op. cit.
The World Bank uses foreign licensing and royalty payments as indicators of intellectual property imports.
Vinod K. Goel, Carl Dahlman, and Mark A. Dutz, “Diffusing and Absorbing Knowledge,” World Bank, op. cit.
National Research Council, S&T Strategies of Six Countries, op. cit., pg. 38.
European Commission Enterprise Directorate-General, INNO-Policy Trend Chart Innovation Policy Progress Report: India 2009. This report can be downloaded at http://www
Martin Gruber, and Tim Studt. “2011 Global R&D Funding Forecast: The Globalization of R&D,” R&D Magazine, Dec. 15, 2010.
Carl Dahlman, Mark A. Dutz, and Vinod K. Goel, “Creating and Commercializing Knowledge,” World Bank, Unleashing India’s Innovation, op. cit.
For a summary of recent initiatives, see ‘India Rising’ Science (24 February 2012, Vol. 335),
Government of India Planning Commission, “Report of the Steering Committee on Science and Technology for Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007–2012),” December 2006.
“Technology Vision 2020” reports for a number of sectors were prepared by the Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council under the Department of Science & Technology to study and support future technology needs of national importance. Access reports at http://www
Ibid.
From Introduction on National Innovation Council Web site. See http://www
National Innovation Council, “India Decade of Innovations 2010–2020 Roadmap,” March 2011 (http://www
For an earlier analysis of inclusive innovation in India and methods to promote it, see Anuja Utz and Carl Dahlman, “Promoting Inclusive Innovation,” World Bank, Unleashing India’s Potential, op. cit.
See National Innovation Council, Towards a More Inclusive and Innovative India, September 2010 (http://www
For a review of the accomplishments and limitations of jugaad, see Navi Radjou, Jaideep Prabhu and Simone Ahuja, Jugaad Innovation: Think Frugal, Be Flexible, Generate Breakthrough Growth, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2012. Some Indian business leaders have criticized jugaad; Anand Mahindra notes that it is “all too often used to excuse cut-price, second-rate answers to his nation’s pressing business and social problems.” See Financial Times, “More with less.” May 19, 2012.
See Rishikesha T. Krishnan, From Jugaad to Systematic Innovation: The Challenge for India, Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, self-published, 2010.
National Innovation Council, Towards a More Inclusive and Innovative India, op. cit.
Indian Express, “$1 bn India Innovation Fund by July, January 17, 2012.
Akshaya Mukul, “Govt Plans 50 Centres of Excellence for Science & Tech,” The Times of India, Jan. 17, 2011.
Indo-Asian News Service, “National Mission to Make India Global Nano Hub,” Nov. 5, 2007.
Sreejiraj Eluvangal, “Renewable Energy Goal Quadrupled,” DNA Money, Dec. 30, 2010.
Details on Bhuvan can be accessed on the NRSC Web site (http://bhuvan
In his presentation in India’s Changing Innovation System, former top government official T. S. R. Subramanian said of the nation’s more than 500 engineering schools and 600 management institutes, only the IITs and Indian Institutes of Management are world class. The rest greatly need improvement.
For an explanation of the National Knowledge Commission’s recommendations, see “FAQs on NKC Recommendations on Higher Education” of the commission’s Web site at http://www
Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, “Survey of Emerging Skill Shortages in Indian Industry,” 2007 (http://www
From presentation by P. V. Indiresan, retired professor of Indian Institute of Technology-Delhi in India’s Changing Innovation System, op. cit.
Ministry of Labor and Employment press release, March 5, 2008 (http://pib
See presentation by Ramesh Mashelkar of the Council of Scientific Industrial Research in India’s Changing Innovation System.
Hindustan Times, “More Autonomy, New Programmes for IITs,” Jan. 16, 2011.
For an explanation of innovation universities, see National Innovation Council, “Concept Note on Innovation Universities Aiming at World Class Standards,” at http://www
Background on the National Knowledge Network can be found on the Department of Information Technology Web site at http://www
Confederation of Indian Industry and Boston Consulting Group, “Manufacturing Innovation: A Senior Executive Survey,” 2005.
Mashelkar, op. cit.
Ibid., data from Indian Central Statistics Organization.
Ibid., data from Indian Central Statistics Organization.
Under India’s Soviet-inspired planned economy from 1947 through the introduction of reforms in 1991, Indian companies were regulated by an system of licenses and permits derisively known as the License Raj that controlled what and how much companies could manufacture, prices, sources of capital, closing of factories, and firing workers.
Data cited in Dutz and Dahlman, op. cit.
Ibid.
Confederation of Indian Industry and Boston Consulting Group, op. cit.
Pete Engardio, “The Future of Outsourcing: How it’s Transforming Whole Industries and Changing the Way We Work,” BusinessWeek, Jan. 30, 2006.
NASSCOM data can be accessed at http://www
NASSCOM data can be accessed at Data can be accessed at http://www
Data: Zinnov.
From presentation from Robert Armstrong of Eli Lilly & Co. in India’s Changing Innovation System, op. cit.
Pete Engardio and Arlene Weintraub, “Outsourcing the Drug Industry,” BusinessWeek, Sept. 4, 2008. Also see Vivek Wadwha, et al, “The Globalization of Innovation: Pharmaceuticals: Can India and China Cure the Global Pharmaceutical Market?” Duke University Pratt School and Engineering and Harvard Labor and Work Life Program, available at SSRN: http://ssrn
From presentation by Nicholas Piramal TITLE Swati Piramal in India’s Changing Innovation System, op. cit.
From presentation by M. P. Chugh of Tata Auto Component Systems in India’s Changing Innovation System, op. cit.
From presentation by Kapil Sibal, then of the Ministry of Science and Technology, ibid.
“Electronics Development Fund to Promote innovation Soon—Official,” Indo-Asian News Source (February 21, 2011).
“Union Budget 2012: Full Text of Pranab Mukherjee’s Speech,” IBN Live (March 16, 2012).
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, “New Millennium Indian Technology Initiative,” (http://www
Examples are featured in the brochure Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, “New Millennium Indian Technology Leadership Institute: A Public Private Partnership R&D Programme for Technology Development,” which can be accessed at http://www
Department of Science & Technology press release, “New Millennium Indian Technology Leadership Initiative Scheme,” Feb. 27, 2009. This release can be accessed at http://www
UNCTAD, World Investment Report 2005, United Nations.
From presentation by Kenneth Herd of General Electric, ibid.
From presentation by Ram Sriram of Google, ibid.
Data from Mini Joseph Tejaswi and Sujit John, “IBM is India’s second largest pvt sector employer,” Times of India, Aug. 18, 2010.
For a discussion of the spillover effects of multinational companies R&D centers in India, see R.A. Mashelkar, Technology in Society, April, 008, Vol,30/3-4, Pp 299–308 (Annexure 3); Technonationalism to Technoglobalism by R.A. Mashelker, Journal of India & Global Affairs, 2009, 90–97. (Annexure 4).
For a discussion of how multinational R&D centers may impact India’s domestic innovation ecosystem, see N. Mrinalini and Sandhya Wakdikar, “Foreign R&D Centres in India: Is There any Positive Impact?”, Current Science, Vol. 94, No. 4, Feb. 25, 2008 (http://www
Presentation by Indian Ambassador to the U.S. Ronen Sen in India’s Changing Innovation System.
Fir a insightful review of challenges, see R.A. Mashelkar ‘Reinventing India’, Pune: Sahyadri Publications, 2012.
European Commission Enterprise Directorate-General, op. cit.
International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, September 2011.
Republic of China, Council for Economic Planning and Development, Taiwan Statistical Data Book 2011, July 2011, Table 4-b2.
Id. Taiwanese companies are the world’s largest producers of notebook PCs, motherboards, personal navigation devices and LCD monitors, but significant production of products occurs offshore, principally in China. Id., Table 4-b1. See also Xing Yuqing, “China’s High-Tech Exports: Myth and Reality,” EAI Background Brief No. 506, February 25, 2010. “Taiwanese-owned IT companies played a very important role in nurturing the high-tech industries in mainland China. By 2007, they had relocated almost 100% of their production capacities in laptop PC, digital camera, motherboard and LCD monitor for PC into mainland China.”
Id., Table 6-4.
National Applied Research Laboratories, Yearbook of Science and Technology Taiwan ROC 2010, May 2011, Table 1-2-4. Taiwan was the 5th in 2009 with respect to both total patents and utility patents.
According to U.S. Patent and Trademark Office data, Taiwan is No. 5 in U.S. utility patents and the third-biggest recipient of U.S. design patents.
R & D Magazine “R&D 2010 Winners,” July 7, 2010 (http://www
Executive Yuan, R.O.C. (Taiwan), Council for Economic Planning and Development, Taiwan Statistical Data Book 2011, July 2011, Table 11-9a.
U.S. Department of State, “Background Note: Taiwan,” Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, July 7, 2011.
For instance, Taiwan-owned Foxconn Technology Group, the world’s biggest electronics manufacturer, reportedly employed more than 1 million workers in China as of 2010 and plans to increase that workforce to 1.3 million. Frederik Balfour, “IPad Assembler Foxconn Says it Has More Than 1 Million Employees in China,” Bloomberg, Dec. 10, 2010.
Ministry of Economic Affairs, “Multinational Innovative R&D Center in Taiwan,” updated Oct. 5, 2011. Access at http://investtaiwan
National Science Council Executive Yuan, “National Science and Technology Development Plan (2009–12), passed July 2, 2009 (http://web1
Id., p. 66. “Promotion of forward-looking, outstanding, interdisciplinary basic research in science and environmental science, biology, and engineering, etc.”
From presentation by Chu Hsin-Sen of Industrial Research and Technology Institute in National Research Council, Innovation Policies for the 21stCentury: Report of a Symposium, Charles W. Wessner, editor, Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2007.
From presentation by Chen Choa-Yih, director general of Industrial Development Bureau of Taiwan’s Ministry of Economic Affairs, Jan. 5, 2006, symposium 21st Century Innovation Systems for the United States and Taiwan: Lessons from a Decade of Change.”
Chu, op. cit.
From Alice H. Amsden, “Taiwan’s Innovation System: A Review of Presentations and Related Articles and Books,” submitted for NAS Jan. 4–6 symposium “21st Century Innovation Systems for the U.S. and Taiwan: Lessons From a Decade of Change,” Taipei.
National Applied Research Laboratories 2009 annual report.
ITRI, “What is ITRI?” accessed at http://www
ITRI data.
Interview with Barry Lo of ITRI.
Amsden, op. cit.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Chu presentation, op. cit.
ITRI Web site.
ITRI Web site.
Bruce Einhorn, “A Creativity Lab for Taiwan,” BusinessWeek, May 16, 2005.
For details on the e-Taiwan program, see http://www
Taiwan has identified six emerging industries to help develop an optimal industrial structure. These are green energy, biotechnology, tourism, medical care, cultural creativity and quality agriculture. National Applied Research Laboratories, Yearbook of Science and Technology Taiwan ROC 2010, May 2011, “Report I: Six Emerging Industries – Recreating Prosperity.”
National Science and Technology Development Plan 2009–2012, op. cit.
Ibid.
International Monetary Fund data.
Ministry of Trade and Industry, Sustaining Innovation-Driven Growth, Science, and Technology, Government of Singapore, February 2006. (http://app
Department of Statistics, Ministry of Trade & Industry, Republic of Singapore, Yearbook of Statistics Singapore 2010, July 2010 and Agency for Science, Technology and Research Singapore, National Survey of R&D in Singapore 2009, December 2010.
World Economic Forum, The Global Competitiveness Report 2011–2012, op. cit.
Singapore Department of Statistics, Census of Population 2010.
Ministry of Manpower, Report on Labour Force in Singapore 2010.
Yearbook of Statistics Singapore 2010.
Source: Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS).
From presentation by Yena Lim of Singapore Agency for Science, Technology, and Research in National Research Council, Understanding Research, Science, and Technology Parks, op. cit.
Fewer than 500 U.S. patents originated in Singapore in 2009, according to U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, not a major improvement over the previous five years, and compared to nearly 7,800 from Taiwan. The WEF’s Global Competitiveness Report recommended that Singapore take measure to improve the “sophistication” of domestic companies.
National Research Council, S&T Strategies of Six Countries: Implications for the United States, Committee on Global Science and Technology Strategies and Their Effect on U.S. National Security, Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2010.
Sustaining Innovation-Driven Growth, Science, and Technology, op. cit.
Ibid.
S. Chaturvedi, “Evolving a National System of Biotechnology Innovation, Some Evidence from Singapore,” Science Technology & Society, 2005.
Singapore Ministry of Education press release, Jan. 25, 2010.
For example, see Richard W. Carney and Loh Yi Zheng, “Institutional (Dis)incentives to Innovate: An Explanation for Singapore’s Innovation Gap,” Journal of East Asia Studies 9(2):291–319 (http://www
Based on concepts described in Clayton M. Christensen, The Innovator’s Dilemma: The Revolutionary Book that Will Change the Way You do Business, Cambridge: Harvard Business School Press, 1997.
National Research Foundation, “National Framework for Innovation and Enterprise,” Prime Minister’s Office, Republic of Singapore, 2008 (http://www
S&T Strategies in Six Nations, op cit.
Carney and Zheng, op. cit.
Ministry of Trade and Industry, “Economic Survey of Singapore 2010,”
Economic Development Board data cited in Wong Siew Ying, “Biomedical Manufacturing Output Grew to S$21b in 2009,” channelnewsasia.com, March 17, 2010.
Joseph Wong, Betting on Biotech: Innovation and the Limits of Asia’s Developmental State, Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2011.
Alice S. Huang and Chris Y. H. Tan, “Achieving Scientific Eminence Within Asia,” Science, Vol. 329, p. 1471–2, Sept. 17, 2010.
S&T Policies in Six Nations, op. cit.
Anthony Faiola, “Germany Seizes on Big Business in China,” Washington Post, Sept. 18, 2010.
Statistisches Bundesamt Deutschland, “German Exports in 2010: +18.5% on 2009,” Press Release No.052/2011-02-09. These data refer to German exports to both other EU members as well as countries outside the EU. Exports to countries outside the EU increased by 26 percent.
World Trade Organization, “Trade Growth to Ease in 2011 But Despite 2010 Record Surge, Crisis Hangover Persists,” WTO Press/628, April 7, 2011.
Estimate by UniCredit Markets and Investment economist Andreas Rees cited in Jeff Black, “Germany’s Future Rising in East as Exports to China Eclipse U.S.,” Bloomberg, April 6.
German Federal Labor Agency data. Germany’s unemployment rate was at 7.3 percent as of March 2011, compared to an average of 9.7 percent for the previous two decades.
A “lead market” is a regional market that can establish the early commercial success of an innovation and large-scale production, increasing the chances of global diffusion. A discussion of Germany’s strategy of establishing a lead market in photovoltaic cells and other technologies can be found in Klaus Jacob, et al, Lead Markets for Environmental Innovations, ZEW Economic Studies, Volume 27, Heidelberg: Physica-Verlag, 2005.
DIW Berlin’s definition of research-intensive industries includes automobiles and parts, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, machinery, and engines. In 2009, $670 billion in research-intensive products, compared to $561 by the United States and $388 by Japan. DIW Berlin data cited in presentation by Rainer Jäkel of the Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology in May 24–25, 2011, NAS symposium “Meeting Global Challenges in Berlin. Also see presentation by Stefan Kuhlmann, Fraunhofer ISI in National Research Council, Innovation Policies for the 21stCentury, Charles W. Wessner, editor, Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2007, and DIW Berlin, “Germany is Well Positioned for International Trade with Research-Intensive Goods,” DIW Berlin Weekly Report, No. 11/2010, Volume 6, March 26, 2010.
Heike Belitz, Marius Clemens, Martin Gornig, Florian Mölders, Alexander Schiersch, and Dieter Schumacher, “After the Crisis: German R&D-Intensive Industries in a Good Position,” DIW Economic Bulletin 2, 2011. This paper can be accessed at http://www
Federal Ministry of Education and Research, Research and Innovation for Germany: Results and Outlook, (http://www
World Intellectual Property Organization data as of 2008.
Federal Ministry of Education and Research, data.
Jäkel presentation, op. cit.
Federal Ministry of Education and Research, Ideas. Innovation. Prosperity. High-Tech Strategy 2020 for Germany, Innovation Policy Framework Division, 2010.
German Federal Ministry of Education and Research data.
Ibid.
German Association of Chambers of Industry and Commerce data cited in BMBF, “High-Tech Strategy 2020,” op. cit.
World Economic Forum, The Global Competitiveness Report 2011–2012, Klaus Schwab, editor, 2011.
Pro Inno Europe InnoMetrics, Innovation Union Scoreboard 2010: The Innovation Union’s Performance Scoreboard for Research and Innovation, Feb. 1, 2011.
Kuhlmann presentation, op. cit.
Jäkel presentation, op. cit.
Expert Commission on Research and Innovation (Expertenkommission Forschung und Innovation), “Research, Innovation and Technological Performance in Germany Report 2010,” http://www
Expert Commission on Research and Innovation, “Research, Innovation and Technological Performance in Germany Report 2009,” http://www
German Institute for Economic Research (Deutsches Institut für Wirtschaftforschung), “Innovation Indicator for Germany 2009,” Deutsche Telekom Foundation and Federation of German Industries. The DIW uses 180 different data items to measure innovation capacity. The summary of the report can be accessed in English at http://www
The Commission of Experts on Innovation, Research, Innovation and Technological Performance in Germany Report 2011, February 2011, p. 130.
Comments by Engelbert Beyer of the Federal Ministry of Education and Research in Nov. 1, 2010, “Meeting Global Challenges” symposium in Washington, op. cit.
Jäkel presentation, op. cit.
From May 24, 2011, remarks by Georg Schütte at “Meeting Global Challenges” symposium in Berlin, op. cit.
From presentation by Klaus F. Zimmerman of the German Institute for Economic Research in Nov. 1, 2010, “Meeting Global Challenges” symposium.
See presentation by Roland Schindler, executive director of Fraunhofer, in November 1, 2010, “Meeting Global Challenges: U.S.-German Innovation Policy” symposium in Washington, op. cit.
Presentation by Leibnitz Association President Karl Ulrich Mayer in May 24–25 “Meeting Global Challenges” symposium in Berlin.
Kuhlmann presentation, op. cit.
Ibid.
Federal Ministry of Education and Research, High-Tech Strategy 2020 for Germany,” op. cit. Framework Division, 2010.
Ibid.
Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology and Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, Energy Concept for an Environmentally Sound, Reliable and Affordable Energy Supply, Sept. 28, 2010 (http://www
Data cited in Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology, Research and Innovation in Germany, op cit.
Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature, Conservation and Nuclear safety, for instance, has announced it will invest €250 million in four “innovation alliances” for climate-protection technologies. Press release, Nov. 11, 2008.
See the Photovoltaic Industry Case Study in Chapter 6 of this volume.
See presentation by John Lushetsky of the U.S. Department of Energy in Nov. 1, 2010, “Meeting Global Challenges” symposium in Washington.
Research and Innovation in Germany, op. cit.
See German government “National Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology Innovation Programme,” May 8, 2006 (http://www
A comprehensive explanation of German programs to develop next-generation transportation technologies can be found in German Federal Government’s National Electromobility Development Plan, August 2009 (www
Federal Ministry of Education and Research, ICT Strategy of the German Federal Government: Digital Germany 2015, November 2010 (http://www
Ibid.
From presentation by Bernhard Milow of German Aerospace Center energy program in Nov. 1, 2010, “Meeting Global Challenges” symposium in Washington.
Zimmerman presentation, op. cit.
See Federal Ministry of Education and Research and Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology, Knowledge Creates Markets: Action Scheme of the German Government, March 2001 (http://www
Engelbert Beyer presentation, op. cit.
Federal Ministry of Education and Research, Research and Innovation in Germany, op. cit.
Gretchen Vogel, “A German Ivy League Takes Shape,” Science Magazine, Oct. 13, 2006.
Excellence Initiative data from German Research Council (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Web site at http://www
Details on the Excellence Initiative can be found on the German Research Council (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Web site at http://www
Data from Research in Germany Web site of the BMBF http://www
Schindler presentation, op. cit.
Information on Fraunhofer innovation cluster initiatives is found on the Fraunhofer Web site at http://www
Federal Ministry of Education and Research Web site.
Information on Germany’s Innovation Alliances is found on the Research in Germany Web site, http://www
BioCatalysis2021 Web site, http://www
Jäkel presentation, op. cit.
Centre for European Economic Research, “Monitoring and Evaluation of ‘KMU-Innovativ’ Within the High-tech-Strategy” (http://www
In 2008 and 2009, the programs PRO INNOII, INNO NET, NEMO, and INNO-WATT were restructured and integrated into Central Innovation Programme.
Khulmann presentation, op. cit.
Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology, Central Innovation Programme (ZIM), January 2011 (http://www
Ibid.
For an analysis of ZIM, see European Commission, ZIM, the Central Programme for SMEs (Zentrales Innovationsprogramm Mittelstand), PRO INNO Europe, INNO-Partnering Forum, Document ID: IPF 11-005, 2010.
Centre for European Economic Research, op. cit.
High-Tech Strategy 2020, op. cit.
Remarks on May 24, 20111, by Dietmar Harhoff of the Commission of Experts for Research and Innovation at “Meeting Global Challenges” symposium in Berlin, op. cit.
Data from the Web page http://www
Data from BWMi Web site.
Jäkel presentation, op. cit.
For a comprehensive explanation of bilateral cooperation in science and technology, see Federal Ministry of Education and Research, “Germany and the United States Increase Their Cooperation,” March 24, 2011 (http://www
See presentation of John Holdren at Nov. 1, 2010, “Meeting Global Challenges” symposium in Washington.
From presentation by German Ambassador to the United Sates Klaus Scharioth in Nov. 1, 2010, symposium “Meeting Global Challenges: U.S.-German Innovation Policy” in Washington, DC.
Remarks by Minister of State Werner Hoyer at May 24, 2011, “Meeting Global Challenges” symposium in Berlin.
German Institute for Economic Research data cited in Juliane Kinast, Christian Reiermann, and Michael Sauga, “Labor Paradox in Germany: Where have the Skilled Workers Gone?,” Spiegel Online, June 22, 2007.
Cologne Institute for Economic Research data cited in Bertrand Benoit, “German Gap Costs €20 bn,” Financial Times, Aug. 20, 2007.
Expert Commission on Research and Innovation, “Research, Innovation and Technological Performance in Germany Report 2010,” op. cit.
Ibid.
Expert Commission on Research and Innovation, “Research, Innovation and Technological Performance in Germany Report 2009,” op. cit.
Greta Vervliet, Science, Technology, and Innovation, Ministry of Flanders, Science and Innovation Administration, 2006.
See presentation by Peter Spyns of the Flanders Department of Economy, Science, and Innovation in National Research Council, Innovative Flanders: Innovation Policies for the 21stCentury—Report of a Symposium, Charles W. Wessner, editor, Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2008. This volume summarizes proceedings from a symposium convened by the NAS STEP Board in Leuven in the Flanders region of Belgium in September 2006 titled “Synergies in Regional and National Innovation Policies in the Global Economy.”
European Commission, Third European Report on Science and Technology Indicators 2003.
Flanders’ numerous innovation partnership programs are described in Vervliet, op. cit.
See the presentation by Peter Spyns of the Department of Economy, Science, and Innovation in Innovative Flanders, op. cit.
Presentation by Bruno de Vuyst of Free University of Belgium in Innovative Flanders.
Bart Van Looy, Koenraad Debackere et al, Research Policy, 2004. The researchers used data based on ISI-SCIE figures.
See remarks by Fientje Moerman, former Minister for Economy, Enterprise, Science, Innovation, and Foreign Trade, in Innovative Flanders.
This target challenges all EU nations to raise their total investment in research and development to 3 percent of GDP by 2010. According to the independent web portal EurActiv, however, this target is increasingly unlikely to be met (www
Moerman presentation, op. cit.
From presentation by Koenraad Debackere of K. U. Leuven in Innovative Flanders.
From presentation by imec Chairman Anton de Proft in Innovative Flanders.
Vervliet, op. cit., p. 57.
Data: IMEC.
Mission Statement.
Presentation by Allen Bowling of Texas Instruments in Innovative Flanders.
Press release issued Aug. 6, 2010 (http://www2
From presentation by Lieve Ongena of VIB in Innovative Flanders.
Presentation by VITO Managing Director Dir Fransaer in Innovative Flanders.
Presentation by IIBT General Manager Wim de Waele in Innovative Flanders.
From remarks by Rudy Aernoudt, then Secretary-General of the Flemish Department of Economics, Science, and Bruno de Vuyst of the Free University of Brussels in Innovative Flanders.
See presentation by Rudy Aernoudt of the Department of Economic, Science, and Innovation in Innovative Flanders.
From presentation by Kenneth Flamm of University of Texas at Austin in National Research Council, 21stCentury Innovation Systems for Japan and the United States: Report of a Symposium, Sadao Nagoka, Masuyuki Kondo, Kenneth Flamm, and Charles Wessner, editors, Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2009.
Presentation by de Proft, op. cit.
Finland ranked No. 3 in innovation and No. 4 in overall competitiveness in the World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Index for 2011-12.
The Lisbon Council & Allianz Dresdner Economic Research, “The Lisbon Review, 2008.”
Eurostat data and ETLA calculations.
See presentation by Heiki Kotilainen of Tekes in National Research Council, Comparative National Innovation Policies: Best Practice for the 21st Century, Charles W. Wessner, ed., Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2005.
Finnish Science and Technology Information Service and Statistics Finland, Research and Development 2010, October 27, 2011.
Ibid.
Eurostat and Statistics Finland data.
Kotilainen presentation, op. cit.
Tekes data.
Tekes 2009 customer surveys.
Examples of successful Tekes investments can be found on http://www
Data from Tekes Annual Review 2009 (http://www
Hannu Piekkola, “Knowledge and Innovation Subsidies as Engines of Growth—The Competitiveness of Finnish Regions,” Research Institute of the Finnish Economy (ETLA), Sarja B 216 Series, Helsinki: Taloustieto Oy, 2006.
Findings of the National Audit Office and other studies of Tekes’ performance can be found in Markus Koskenlinna, “Additionality and Tekes,” Impact Analysis, Nov. 25, 2003 (http://www
World Economic Forum, The Global Competitiveness Report 2011–2012, op. cit. Canada was 11th in the innovation ranking.
Council of Canadian Academies, Innovation and Business Strategy: Why Canada Falls Short, Report by Expert Panel on Business Innovation, 2009. This report can be accessed at http://www
Freedman shows that BERD intensity in Quebec and Ontario is much higher than in the other, more resource dependent provinces. Ron Freedman, “Re-Thinking Canada’s BERD Gap,” The Impact Group, January 2011.
See remarks by Peter J. Nicholson in Innovation Policies for the 21stCentury, op. cit. At the time, Dr. Nicholson represented the Office of the Prime Minister.
Ibid.
Andrew Sharpe, “Lessons for Canada from the International Productivity Experience,” Centre for the Study of Living Standards, Research Report 2006-02, 2006.
IMD data cited in Science, Technology and Innovation Council, State of the Nation 2010, June 2011. This report can be accessed at http://www
Council of Canadian Academies, op. cit.
Science, Technology and Innovation Council, State of the Nation 2010, op. cit.
Human Resources and Skills Development Canada data.
OECD Science and Technology Indicators 2009.
OECD data.
Science, Technology, and Innovation Council of Canada, “State of the Nation, 2010.” Access at http://www
Ibid.
For a good analysis of the evolution of Canadian innovation policy, see Thomas Liljemark, “Innovation Policy in Canada: Strategies and Realities,” Swedish Institute for Growth Policy Studies, A2004:24 (http://www
Industry Canada, Achieving Excellence: Investing in People, Knowledge and Opportunity—Canada’s Innovation Strategy, 2001. (http://dsp-psd
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Science, Technology and Industry Outlook 2010: Country Profiles,
See Industry Canada, Mobilizing Science and Technology to Canada’s Advantage—2007, 2007 (http://www
Canada Foundation for Innovation, 2009 Report on Results: An Analysis of Investments in Infrastructure (http://www
Canada Foundation for Innovation press release, Jan. 21, 2011.
Data: Canada Research Chairs Web site.
Nicholson presentation, op. cit.
National Research Council, “NRC-Industrial Research Assistance Program,” Power Point presentation, March 2010, (http://acamp
National Research Council, “Impact Evaluation of the NRC Industrial Research Assistance Program (NRC-IRAP),” Executive Summary, 2008 (http://www
Mobilizing Science and Technology to Canada’s Advantage, op. cit.
Networks of Centres of Excellence Web site.
Ibid.
For details of how Canadian R&D tax credits work, see Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada, “Invest in Canada: We Take Care of Business,” September 2010 (http:
Nicholson presentation, op. cit.
Industrial Technologies Office Web site.
Nicholson, op. cit.
Statistics Canada at http://www40
Science, Technology and Innovation Council, State of the Nation 2010, op. cit.
Industry Canada, Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada, and Statistics Canada, “Survey of Innovation and Business Strategy,” 2009. A summary of the survey’s findings can be found on the Industry Canada Web site at http://www
Science, Technology, and Innovation Council, State of the Nation 2008 (http://www
OCED, Main Science and Technology Indicators, 2010.
Rebecca Lindell, “Canadian R&D Spending Continues Downward Spiral: StatsCan,” Postmedia News, Dec. 8, 2010.
Canada Council on Learning, Taking Stock of Lifelong Learning in Canada (2005-2010): Progress or Complacency? Aug. 25, 2010.
A National Academy report recently concluded, however, that Japan has still not adequately addressed some longstanding weaknesses in its S&T system “which include immobility of personnel, inadequate entrepreneurialism, insufficient opportunity for younger researchers, and abiding problems with industry-university-government collaboration.” National Academy of Sciences, S&T Strategies of Six Countries, op. cit., p. 43.
See Sadao Nagaoka and Kenneth Flamm, “The Chrysanthemum Meets the Eagle— The Co-evolution of Innovation Policies in Japan and the United States,” in National Research Council, 21st Century Innovation Systems for Japan and the United States: Lessons from a Decade of Change, Sadao Nagaoka, Masayuki Kondo, Kenneth Flamm, and Charles Wessner, Eds., Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2009.
Japanese Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, Statistics Bureau at http://www
OECD, OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scorecard 2011, Figure 2. 5.2.
Lee Branstetter and Yoshiaki Nakamura, “Is Japan’s Innovation Capacity in Decline?” National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 9438, January 2003.
Some analysts attribute Japan’s decline as a leader in consumer electronics, characterized by innovative products such Sony’s Walkman audio devices, to increased importance of embedded software, an industry dominated by U.S. companies, rather than hardware design. See Ashish Arora, Lee G. Branstetter, and Matej Drev, “Going Soft: How the Rise of Software-Based Innovation Led to the Decline of Japan’s IT Industry and the Resurgence of Silicon Valley,” National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 16156, July 2010.
For an unofficial translation of the Science and Technology Basic Law (Law No. 130 of 1995) see http://www
National Science Foundation, “The S&T Resources of Japan; A Comparison with the United States,” Access at http://www
For an extensive discussion of changes in Japanese innovation policies, see Akira Goto and Kazuyuki Motohashi, “Technology Policies in Japan: 1990 to the Present,” in 21stCentury Innovation Systems for Japan and the United States.
A concise analysis of Japan’s shift in innovation policy is found in National Research Council, S&T Strategies of Six Countries: Implications for the United States, Committee on Global Science and Technology Strategies and Their Effect on U.S. National Security, Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2010.
See presentation by David K. Kahaner of the Asian Technology Information Program in Innovation Policies for the 21stCentury, op. cit.
Nagaoka and Flamm, op. cit.
Presentation by Masayuki Kondo of Japan’s National Institute of Science and Technology Policy in 21stCentury Innovation Systems for Japan and the United States.
World Economic Forum, The Global Competitiveness Report 2011–2012, op. cit.
Presentation by Masayuki Kondo, op. cit.
Ibid.
See presentation by Sadao Nagaoka of Hitotsubashi University in 21stCentury Innovation Systems for Japan and the United States.
Ibid.
S&T Policies in Six Nations, op. cit.
See presentation by Takehiko Yasuda of the Research Institute of Economy, Trade, and Industry in 21stCentury Innovation Systems for Japan and the United States.
Japan Finance Corporation Web site.
Employment Status Survey by the Ministry of Public Management, Home Affairs, Post and Telecommunications, 1997.
Donna J. Kelley, Niels Bosma, Jóse Ernesto Amorós, “Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2010 Global Report,” Global Entrepreneurship Research Association, 2011, pg. 23.
Applied Research Inc., “Survey of Environment for Start-ups,” November 2006.
Data cited in Yasuda presentation, op. cit. For an explanation of the National Life Finance Corporation program, see Jun-ichi Abe, “Small Business Finance & Support for Startups in Japan (Case of NLFC),” National Life Finance Corporation, December 2004 (http://www
Yosuke Oka, Kenta Nakamura, and Akira Tohei, “Public-Private Linkage in Biomedical Research in Japan: Lessons of the 1990s,” in 21stCentury Innovation Systems for Japan and the United States.
Ibid.
Nagaoka and Flamm, op. cit.
